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1 поперечный масштаб
1) Military: interpolating scale2) Engineering: transversal scale3) Construction: surveyor's scale4) Mathematics: diagonal scaleУниверсальный русско-английский словарь > поперечный масштаб
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2 Wren, Sir Christopher
SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building[br]b. 20 October 1632 East Knoyle, Wiltshire, Englandd. 25 February 1723 London, England[br]English architect whose background in scientific research and achievement enhanced his handling of many near-intractable architectural problems.[br]Born into a High Church and Royalist family, the young Wren early showed outstanding intellectual ability and at Oxford in 1654 was described as "that miracle of a youth". Educated at Westminster School, he went up to Oxford, where he graduated at the age of 19 and obtained his master's degree two years later. From this time onwards his interests were in science, primarily astronomy but also physics, engineering and meteorology. While still at college he developed theories about and experimentally solved some fifty varied problems. At the age of 25 Wren was appointed to the Chair of Astronomy at Gresham College in London, but he soon returned to Oxford as Savilian Professor of Astronomy there. At the same time he became one of the founder members of the Society of Experimental Philosophy at Oxford, which was awarded its Royal Charter soon after the Restoration of 1660; Wren, together with such men as Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, John Evelyn and Robert Boyle, then found himself a member of the Royal Society.Wren's architectural career began with the classical chapel that he built, at the request of his uncle, the Bishop of Ely, for Pembroke College, Cambridge (1663). From this time onwards, until he died at the age of 91, he was fully occupied with a wide and taxing variety of architectural problems which he faced in the execution of all the great building schemes of the day. His scientific background and inventive mind stood him in good stead in solving such difficulties with an often unusual approach and concept. Nowhere was this more apparent than in his rebuilding of fifty-one churches in the City of London after the Great Fire, in the construction of the new St Paul's Cathedral and in the grand layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich.The first instance of Wren's approach to constructional problems was in his building of the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford (1664–9). He based his design upon that of the Roman Theatre of Marcellus (13–11 BC), which he had studied from drawings in Serlio's book of architecture. Wren's reputation as an architect was greatly enhanced by his solution to the roofing problem here. The original theatre in Rome, like all Roman-theatres, was a circular building open to the sky; this would be unsuitable in the climate of Oxford and Wren wished to cover the English counterpart without using supporting columns, which would have obscured the view of the stage. He solved this difficulty mathematically, with the aid of his colleague Dr Wallis, the Professor of Geometry, by means of a timber-trussed roof supporting a painted ceiling which represented the open sky.The City of London's churches were rebuilt over a period of nearly fifty years; the first to be completed and reopened was St Mary-at-Hill in 1676, and the last St Michael Cornhill in 1722, when Wren was 89. They had to be rebuilt upon the original medieval sites and they illustrate, perhaps more clearly than any other examples of Wren's work, the fertility of his imagination and his ability to solve the most intractable problems of site, limitation of space and variation in style and material. None of the churches is like any other. Of the varied sites, few are level or possess right-angled corners or parallel sides of equal length, and nearly all were hedged in by other, often larger, buildings. Nowhere is his versatility and inventiveness shown more clearly than in his designs for the steeples. There was no English precedent for a classical steeple, though he did draw upon the Dutch examples of the 1630s, because the London examples had been medieval, therefore Roman Catholic and Gothic, churches. Many of Wren's steeples are, therefore, Gothic steeples in classical dress, but many were of the greatest originality and delicate beauty: for example, St Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside; the "wedding cake" St Bride in Fleet Street; and the temple diminuendo concept of Christ Church in Newgate Street.In St Paul's Cathedral Wren showed his ingenuity in adapting the incongruous Royal Warrant Design of 1675. Among his gradual and successful amendments were the intriguing upper lighting of his two-storey choir and the supporting of the lantern by a brick cone inserted between the inner and outer dome shells. The layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich illustrates Wren's qualities as an overall large-scale planner and designer. His terms of reference insisted upon the incorporation of the earlier existing Queen's House, erected by Inigo Jones, and of John Webb's King Charles II block. The Queen's House, in particular, created a difficult problem as its smaller size rendered it out of scale with the newer structures. Wren's solution was to make it the focal centre of a great vista between the main flanking larger buildings; this was a masterstroke.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1673. President, Royal Society 1681–3. Member of Parliament 1685–7 and 1701–2. Surveyor, Greenwich Hospital 1696. Surveyor, Westminster Abbey 1699.Surveyor-General 1669–1712.Further ReadingR.Dutton, 1951, The Age of Wren, Batsford.M.Briggs, 1953, Wren the Incomparable, Allen \& Unwin. M.Whinney, 1971, Wren, Thames \& Hudson.K.Downes, 1971, Christopher Wren, Allen Lane.G.Beard, 1982, The Work of Sir Christopher Wren, Bartholomew.DY -
3 мерная лента
1) General subject: tape, tape-line, tape-measure, tapemeasure2) Aviation: gauge line3) Naval: measuring ribbon, surveying chain, girth tape (например, для обмера судна)4) Engineering: steel tape, tapeline5) Construction: surveyor's band6) Mathematics: tape line7) Geodesy: band (обычно металлическая), calibration tape, measuring tape, surveyor's tape8) Forestry: chain9) Oil: tape line measure, tape measure10) Cartography: surveying tape11) Topology: measuring-tape12) General subject: scale -
4 Gebäude
Gebäude n GEN, GRUND building* * *n <Geschäft, Grund> building* * *Gebäude
building, house, construction, structure, edifice, architecture, fabric, (Geschäftshaus) premises;
• abgerissenes Gebäude wrecked building;
• abschreibungsfähiges Gebäude qualifying building;
• nicht abschreibungsfähiges Gebäude non-qualifying structure;
• bankeigenes Gebäude bank’s premises;
• baufälliges Gebäude dilapidated building;
• hoch besteuertes Gebäude heavily rated building;
• bewohntes Gebäude occupied building;
• gut erhaltenes Gebäude building in good repair (preservation);
• feuergefährdetes Gebäude fire trap;
• gewerblich genutztes Gebäude industrial (commercial) building, building in use for the purpose of trade;
• nicht für die Produktion genutztes Gebäude non-productive building;
• standardisiertes gewerbliches Gebäude advance factory (Br.);
• landwirtschaftliches Gebäude farm building;
• öffentliches Gebäude public building;
• städtisches Gebäude municipal building;
• leer stehendes Gebäude building standing empty;
• vermietetes Gebäude let property;
• Gebäude nach Abschreibungen (Bilanz) buildings less depreciation;
• Gebäude abreißen to take (pull) down a building;
• Gebäude abschätzen to assess a building;
• Gebäude aufstocken to raise a building;
• Gebäude im Submissionsweg ausschreiben to invite tenders for a building;
• Gebäude zu hoch (übermäßig) bewerten to set too high a valuation on a building;
• Gebäude niedriger bewerten to reduce the assessment of a building;
• Gebäude in gutem Zustand erhalten to keep a building in good repair;
• Gebäude errichten to set up a building;
• Gebäude rasch errichten (hochziehen) to run up a building;
• Gebäude zu bewachen haben to have the care of a building;
• Gebäude für Versicherungszwecke schätzen lassen to rate a building for insurance purposes;
• Gebäude niederreißen to destroy a building;
• Gebäude seiner Bestimmung übergeben to inaugurate a building;
• Gebäude unterhalten to keep a building in good repair;
• Gebäude untersuchen to examine a building;
• gewerblich Gebäude vermieten to carry on a trade of plant hire;
• Gebäude wiederherstellen to restore a ruined building;
• Gebäude maßstabsgerecht zeichnen to scale a building;
• das Gebäude ist versichert building is covered;
• Gebäudeabnahme final architect’s certificate;
• Gebäudeabnutzung depreciation of buildings;
• Gebäudeabnutzungsfonds premises redemption fund;
• Gebäudeabschätzer building (quantity, Br.) surveyor;
• Gebäudeabschätzung assessment of a building, quantity surveying (Br.);
• Gebäudeabschreibung depreciation of buildings;
• Gebäudeaufführung building construction;
• Gebäude aufwand, Gebäudeausgaben building outlay;
• Gebäudebewertung building survey (Br.);
• zu hohe (niedrige) Gebäudebewertung vornehmen to set too high (low) a valuation on a building;
• Gebäudeeigentümer owner of a building;
• Gebäudeeinsturz collapse of a building;
• Gebäudeerhaltung maintenance of structure;
• Gebäudeerhaltungsauflage preservation order;
• Gebäudeerneuerung renewal of a building;
• Gebäude errichtung, Gebäudeerstellung housebuilding, construction of a building;
• Gebäudeertragswert annual value of a building;
• Gebäudefläche [building] floor area;
• Gebäudehaftung houseowner's liability;
• Gebäudehauptbuch building ledger;
• Gebäudeherstellungskosten cost of construction;
• Gebäudeinstandhaltung maintenance of a building;
• Gebäudeinstandsetzung repairs to (restoration of) a building;
• Gebäudekomplex mass (group) of buildings, pile;
• Gebäudekonto building account;
• Gebäudemiete rent of a structure;
• Gebäudenutzfläche useful area of a building;
• Gebäudereparaturen building repairs, repairs of structure;
• Gebäudereparaturrücklage provision for building repairs;
• Gebäudesanierung restoration project;
• auf Nässe zurückzuführende Gebäudeschäden injuries to a building due to the wet;
• Gebäudeschätzung building survey (Br.);
• allgemein zugängliche Gebäudeteile common parts of a building;
• Gebäudeunterhaltung building (property) maintenance;
• wertsteigernde Gebäudeverbesserung beneficial improvement;
• Gebäudeversicherung insurance of structure, (Wohngebäude) residence insurance;
• Gebäude- und Mobiliarversicherung insurance of structure and contents;
• Gebäudewert property value;
• Gebäudewerterhöhung improvement of buildings (US);
• Gebäudezugang building approach. -
5 livello
m levelmotoring livello dell'olio oil levelfig ad altissimo livello first-class, first-ratesopra il livello del mare above sea levellivello di vita standard of living* * *livello1 s.m.1 level: livello dell'acqua, water level; differenze di livello, differences in level; il terrazzo è al livello della strada, the terrace is at street (o ground) level; l'interruttore è allo stesso livello dell'allarme, the switch is at level with (o on the same level as) the alarm; a, sopra il, sotto il livello del mare, at, above, below sea level; livello (medio) del mare, mean sea level; le altezze delle montagne si calcolano sul livello del mare, the height of mountains is calculated from sea level // livello di sicurezza, safety level; livello di guardia, danger level (o point); (di fiume o bacino d'acqua) safety highwater mark // (econ.): livello dei prezzi, price level; livello massimo dei prezzi, price ceiling; livello minimo dei prezzi, price floor; livello retributivo, salary level; livello salariale, wage level; livello occupazionale, employment level // (amm.): livello dell'organico, manning level; livello dirigenziale, management (o top) level // ( Borsa) livello normale, par // (comm.) livello delle scorte, stock level // (cartografia) curva di livello, contour line (o isohypse) // (fis.) livello costante, dead level2 (fig.) (grado, condizione) level, standard, degree: livello di vita, standard of living (o living standard); appartengono a due livelli sociali diversi, they belong to two different social levels (o ranks); un alto livello sociale, a high social level; riunione ad alto livello, high-level meeting; il livello di istruzione di uno studente, the educational level of a student // scendere al livello di qlcu., to come down to s.o.'s level; la tua preparazione non è al mio livello, your preparation is not on the same level as mine; non siamo a quei livelli, (così bassi) we haven't sunk so low, (così alti) we aren't on such a high level; la soluzione va presa a livello di tecnici, the solution is the responsibility of the technicians // a livello scientifico ci sono ancora molti problemi, from a scientific point of view there are still many problems; è un marchio noto a livello nazionale, on a national scale it's a well-known brand; è un lavoro interessante, ma a livello economico non soddisfa, it's an interesting job, but economically speaking it's not satisfactory3 (ferr.) passaggio a livello, level crossing; (amer.) grade crossing: passaggio a livello incustodito, unguarded level crossing4 (strumento) level: (topografia) livello a cannocchiale, dumpy-level (o surveyor's level); (fis. nucleare) livello elettronico, shell5 (inform.) (di software) swatch6 (geol.) (piano geologico) horizon.* * *[li'vɛllo]1. sm1) (di olio, acqua) levela livello della strada — at street o ground level
sotto il/sul livello del mare Geog — below/above sea level
2) (grado) standard, (intellettuale, sociale) leveluna conferenza ad alto livello — high-level o top-level talks
a livello economico/politico — at an economic/a political level
2.* * *[li'vɛllo]sostantivo maschile1) (altezza) levelsopra, sotto il livello del mare — above, below sea level
2) (grado, condizione) level, standardabbassarsi al livello di qcn. — to get o come down to sb.'s level
ai massimi -i — top class, top-level
a tutti i -i — at all levels, at every level
3) amm. (qualifica) grade•livello di guardia — flood mark; fig. danger level
* * *livello/li'vεllo/sostantivo m.1 (altezza) level; sopra, sotto il livello del mare above, below sea level2 (grado, condizione) level, standard; al di sotto del livello richiesto below the required standard; allo stesso livello di on the same level with; abbassarsi al livello di qcn. to get o come down to sb.'s level; di alto livello high-level; ai massimi -i top class, top-level; a tutti i -i at all levels, at every level3 amm. (qualifica) gradelivello di guardia flood mark; fig. danger level; livello retributivo wage level; livello di vita living standards. -
6 Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard
[br]b. 26 April 1769 Hacqueville, Normandy, Franced. 12 December 1849 London, England[br]French (naturalized American) engineer of the first Thames Tunnel.[br]His mother died when he was 7 years old, a year later he went to college in Gisors and later to the Seminary of Sainte-Nicaise at Rouen. From 1786 to 1792 he followed a career in the French navy as a junior officer. In Rouen he met Sophie Kingdom, daughter of a British Navy contractor, whom he was later to marry. In July 1793 Marc sailed for America from Le Havre. He was to remain there for six years, and became an American citizen, occupying himself as a land surveyor and as an architect. He became Chief Engineer to the City of New York. At General Hamilton's dinner table he learned that the British Navy used over 100,000 ship's blocks every year; this started him thinking how the manufacture of blocks could be mechanized. He roughed out a set of machines to do the job, resigned his post as Chief Engineer and sailed for England in February 1799.In London he was shortly introduced to Henry Maudslay, to whom he showed the drawings of his proposed machines and with whom he placed an order for their manufacture. The first machines were completed by mid-1803. Altogether Maudslay produced twenty-one machines for preparing the shells, sixteen for preparing the sheaves and eight other machines.In February 1809 he saw troops at Portsmouth returning from Corunna, the victors, with their lacerated feet bound in rags. He resolved to mechanize the production of boots for the Army and, within a few months, had twenty-four disabled soldiers working the machinery he had invented and installed near his Battersea sawmill. The plant could produce 400 pairs of boots and shoes a day, selling at between 9s. 6d. and 20s. a pair. One day in 1817 at Chatham dockyard he observed a piece of scrap keel timber, showing the ravages wrought by the shipworm, Teredo navalis, which, with its proboscis protected by two jagged concave triangular shells, consumes, digests and finally excretes the ship's timbers as it gnaws its way through them. The excreted material provided material for lining the walls of the tunnel the worm had drilled. Brunel decided to imitate the action of the shipworm on a large scale: the Thames Tunnel was to occupy Marc Brunel for most of the remainder of his life. Boring started in March 1825 and was completed by March 1843. The project lay dormant for long periods, but eventually the 1,200 ft (366 m)-long tunnel was completed. Marc Isambard Brunel died at the age of 80 and was buried at Kensal Green cemetery.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1814. Vice-President, Royal Society 1832.Further ReadingP.Clements, 1970, Marc Isambard Brunel, London: Longmans Green.IMcNBiographical history of technology > Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard
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